Dissolution measurements are conduced as batch reactor studies in custom-built glass reactors. The glass reaction vessel has a capacity of 100 mL and is stirred using a magnetic stir bar. The vessel has a quartz window with an area of 15 cm² mounted on top that permitted deoxygenated experiments and is removable to allow for dissolution reactions to proceed under atmospheric conditions. For experiments that requires anaerobic conditions, suspensions are purged with N₂ for ∼15 min at flow rate of ~120 mL/min, prior to dissolution. And during the experiment, the head-space of the reaction vessel is purged to maintain positive N₂ pressure. The temperature is kept constant, usually at room temperature, through the use of a water jacket integrated to the reaction vessel and monitored throughout the experiment. The pH of the reaction medium is constantly monitored with a glass electrode standardized with pH buffer solutions. Experiments are performed at constant pH and are adjusted with HCl as necessary. Over time, samples are periodically removed from the reactor using a disposable syringe that is connected to 12 cm of Teflon tubing. Aliquots (1 mL) are collected after passing through a 0.2 μm PTFE filter and save for analysis. In photo-induced dissolution experiments, a solar simulator with a 150 W xenon solar simulator (~ 1 sun, Newport) is placed above the quarts glass window.